Pre-Darwinism Views Essays - Biological Evolution,

Pre-Darwinism Views Before November 24, 1859, many people simply believed that species were created by God in their present forms, or that it was possible for organic matter to be spawned from inorganic matter. However, Charles Darwin used these ideas to create his thesis, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The first true theories on evolution arise during the classical Greek period. On a handful of Greek philosophers believed in the theory of evolution and natural selection. Unfortunately, the two philosophers who influenced western civilization the most, Plato and Aristotle, opposed any theory of evolution. Plato believed that there were two worlds, one real world, and one imperfect world that we perceive with our senses. Any variations in life were imperfect images of their ideal forms. However, Aristotle didn't believe in two worlds; instead, he believed in a ?scale of nature.? Each life form was arranged on a type of ?ladder?. It started at the bottom with the least complex organism and continued up to the most complex organism. Each organism had a pre-determined ?rung?, which allowed no ability to move up, and no open spaces for a new organism to fill. According to Neil Campbell in his book, Biology: Fourth Edition, ?Juedo-Christian culture fortified anti-evolution theories.? (p. 400-401) The creationist-essentialist dogma that species were permanent and created for a specific purpose became deeply embedded in Western thought. Any person who dared to theorize or believe in theories about evolution were instantly labeled heretics. The medieval church saw evolution as saying that God did not exist, that we are not the ?supreme creation?, and that humans could just be evolutionary mistakes. However, in the later 1700's and early 1800's there was a ?scientific revolution? taking place. People began to use scientific experiments to explain what they had always put faith in. According to Campbell, the first big step in the development of the theory of evolution was made by Carolus Linnaeus. (p. 400-401) Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy and developed the naming system for organisms that we still use today. He grouped organisms based on similar characteristics. This, for Darwin, would become a focal point of his theory of evolution. When Darwin began his research aboard the H.M.S. Beagle in 1831, he had some pre-constructed ideas. The first was that he rejected Plato's, Aristotle's, and the Church's ideas that organism were made the way they are, and will never change. The second was about Linnaeus' filing system; Darwin believed that similar species must of evolved from similar ancestors. During his trip on the Beagle, Darwin collected 13 different types of finches that he believed were different species. When he returned to Great Britain in 1836, he learned from ornithologists that the 13 different types of finches he collected, were indeed separate species. This discovery led Darwin to theorize that if a species was isolated, then it would adapt to fit it's surroundings; just like how the finches adapted new beaks depending on their native types of food. Finally in 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on his theory of natural selection and the origin of species. When Darwin finished his book on evolution, The Origin of Species, he had two major ideas: the first was that evolution was the explanation for life's unity and diversity; the second was that natural selection is the cause for adaptations. Darwin provided numerous example of his theories, but he was still doubted. However, on of his modern day supporters named Ernst Mayr has provided his own theories and proof of Darwin's ideas. With respect to Darwin's ideas on natural selection and adaptation, Mayr used an closely related group of insect species to prove this point. In Malaya round, pink flowers are common; so the mantid native to Malya is round and pink. However, in Central America, most plants have green, oval-like leaves; so the mantid to Central America is green and oval-like in shape. This example shows how species of common ancestry have adapted to fit their individual surroundings. With respect to Darwin's ideas on evolution, we will look at the mustard plant. The mustard plant is the evolutional ancestor of six different vegetables: cauliflower, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, kale, and kohlrabi. Breeder have been able to prove this by focusing on one particular part of the plant to accentuate. The process of accentuating the plant parts by breeders is evidence of evolution, except that humans are manipulating the results to meet their own needs. There really is not much more information on

Free Essays on Cassandra

Cassandra, was a daughter of Hecuba and King Priam, the rulers of Troy during the Trojan War according to Homer's Iliad. Cassandra was a beautiful young woman, blessed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo, who was infatuated with her. Unfortunately, she shunned Apollo at the last minute and he added a twist to her gift; Cassandra was doomed to tell the truth, but never to be believed. "I promised consent to Apollo but broke my word... and ever since that fault I could persuade no one." [Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1208ff.] "Have I missed the mark, or, like true archer, do I strike my quarry? Or am I prophet of lies, a babbler from door to door?" [Cassandra. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1194] For this reason Cassandra was not believed when, near the end of the Trojan War, she said that there was an armed force hidden in the wooden horse that the Achaeans had abandoned. King Priam did not know what to do with her, so he tried to keep Cassandra locked up and out of the way of the warriors of Troy. When Troy finally fell to the Greek invaders, Cassandra was attacked and supposedly raped by the Greek warrior Ajax of Locris, but eventually avenged by Athena. When Cassandra accompanied the Greek hero Agamemnon as his mistress to his homeland, she was killed by his vengeful wife, Clytaemnestra. Aeschylus's Agamemnon tells the story of the Greek hero Agamemnon's fateful return home to Myceneae, where his wife Clytaemnestra waits to kill him. Cassandra is a powerful figure in this play, foretelling the doom of the hero and herself through visions of a curse upon his household. On his arrival Agamemnon fell victim of a conspiracy conceived by his own wife Clytaemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, who murdered both Agamemnon and Cassandra. This too Cassandra predicted: "... for me waits destruction by the two-edged sword." [Cassandra. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1149] The tragedy begins with Clytaemnestra awaiting Agamemnon's return from Troy, her secret lover and accomplic... Free Essays on Cassandra Free Essays on Cassandra Cassandra, was a daughter of Hecuba and King Priam, the rulers of Troy during the Trojan War according to Homer's Iliad. Cassandra was a beautiful young woman, blessed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo, who was infatuated with her. Unfortunately, she shunned Apollo at the last minute and he added a twist to her gift; Cassandra was doomed to tell the truth, but never to be believed. "I promised consent to Apollo but broke my word... and ever since that fault I could persuade no one." [Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1208ff.] "Have I missed the mark, or, like true archer, do I strike my quarry? Or am I prophet of lies, a babbler from door to door?" [Cassandra. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1194] For this reason Cassandra was not believed when, near the end of the Trojan War, she said that there was an armed force hidden in the wooden horse that the Achaeans had abandoned. King Priam did not know what to do with her, so he tried to keep Cassandra locked up and out of the way of the warriors of Troy. When Troy finally fell to the Greek invaders, Cassandra was attacked and supposedly raped by the Greek warrior Ajax of Locris, but eventually avenged by Athena. When Cassandra accompanied the Greek hero Agamemnon as his mistress to his homeland, she was killed by his vengeful wife, Clytaemnestra. Aeschylus's Agamemnon tells the story of the Greek hero Agamemnon's fateful return home to Myceneae, where his wife Clytaemnestra waits to kill him. Cassandra is a powerful figure in this play, foretelling the doom of the hero and herself through visions of a curse upon his household. On his arrival Agamemnon fell victim of a conspiracy conceived by his own wife Clytaemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, who murdered both Agamemnon and Cassandra. This too Cassandra predicted: "... for me waits destruction by the two-edged sword." [Cassandra. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1149] The tragedy begins with Clytaemnestra awaiting Agamemnon's return from Troy, her secret lover and accomplic...

Research proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Research proposal - Essay Example The students were from different class and racial backgrounds. Hughes found out that while each had their own perception of the definition of gender, there were also instances when certain aspects varied. For instance, the definition of gender as an entity in each society revealed roles that in this case the females were supposed to engage in. These roles differed from society to society. The implication is that the definition of gender is dynamic and cannot be wholesome. The understanding of feminism as a whole therefore must be approach from a cross-cultural context. While the study goes a long way in the definition of gender construction in a cultural approach, it does not sufficiently separate it from sex. It follows that in all the sampled societies, roles are divided on the basis on one’s sex. This does not make sense therefore because the question â€Å"what gender are you?† would be no different from â€Å"what sex are you?† The gap therefore lies in the question, is gender merely a cultural inscription? The separation of gender and sex would, as will be seen in the study to be conducted, ease the perception of how one defines straight and gay people. If gender is to have a cultural inscription, it means that gay people are as dictated by their sex, to remain in their â€Å"respective† genders. However, if sex is not an issue, then gays and lesbians would be viewed as being in the right â€Å"place† as dictated by their identity. These are some of the changing perceptions of gender. Hughes, Kate. â€Å"I’ve Been Pondering Whether You Can Be a Part-Feminist’: Young Australian Women’s Studies Students Discuss Gender†. Women’s Studies International Forum, 28 (1). 37 -49.,

The Various Employment Theories and The Overall Changes in Employment Assignment - 2

The Various Employment Theories and The Overall Changes in Employment Relations Since the 1970s - Assignment Example This research will begin with the statement that the relation between the management and employee in the workplace is a subject that attracts many people’s attention. Work is a part of people’s lives and so a lot of time is spent dealing with work-related issues. How the society views work today is different from the views of people from in the past due to the changing environments. Employment relation explains the management and regulation of the employment relationship between the worker and the employer. The study of employment relations has led to several theoretical perspectives that have helped explain the nature of employment relations. The following is some of the perspectives draw. The first is Unitarianism, a perspective based on workplace conflicts between the employees and the manager. This theory explains that conflicts in the workplace are inevitable, and they should be seen as a unifier and not a dissolvent. In the organization, the employee carries the s ame interest as the manager and that is to see the organization thrive. In case of disagreement, the two parties agree to disagree for the benefit of the organization. The main cause for conflicts according to Bryson is a clash of personality, promotion, lack of communication skills and dissidents deviation. This can be easily solved by the management through finding the problem and solving it. In Taylor’s scientific management theory he states that employees have limited ambitions and tend to act immature and avoid their responsibilities whenever they can. Companies that choose to subscribe to Taylor’s theory set clear roles and directives on assignments undertaken at work. The approach here gives management an upper hand because it has great authority on the workers. The other theory applicable in this case is the human relations theory where workers are viewed as individuals who are self-motivated and have a sense of self-fulfillment in the organization. In this the ory, workers are granted the autonomy to operate in a manner that they feel the job satisfaction. Organizations that adopt this approach create a self-governing environment and allow employees to govern themselves. The second set of assumption is pluralism and unlike Unitarianism pluralism believes that work conflict is necessary and healthy for the organization. Businesses are made up of different complex groups with each group carrying different interests.

Enchantment and Exploitation Essay Example for Free

Enchantment and Exploitation Essay The pages of human history daubed in bloodshed related to conflicts of culture, race, and territorial ambitions coupled with economic interests, ask the crying question. How to make this Planet Earth heaven like? The answer is simple and straightforward. Eyes full of understanding, hearts full of love and mutual respect for each other’s way of life-enough, these alone are enough! The history of northern New Mexico is the example of the abovementioned exploitative behavior of successive waves of settlers. The mindless, aggressive and violent deeds relating to the historical past to defeat and unsettle the natives and destruction of the forest wealth, have created a new issue of environmental problems. The living style of the natives was one of deep respect for the Nature, imbibed with their own spiritual values. Nothing much is known about the people who lived in high Sangres. The archeologists and the intellectuals of the modern materialistic civilization fail to appreciate the modes and contented living styles of the native people. â€Å"They were gatherers and hunters whose closest cultural contacts lay with the Oshara tradition of the Desert Culture, centered to the west. Their living arrangements were flexible and mobile. They had few possessions, built most of their shelters to last only weeks or months, and irregularly congregated in groups of several dozen or dispersed in small family bands†(deBuys,William,1985,p,31) They wandered from place to place, were part-time agriculturists by profession. What they produced, like maize, squash, beans in canyon bottoms was less than adequate to meet their family needs. They protected themselves against flood, drought and other hazards with their traditional methods. The prime task of an aggressor is to take possession of as much land as is possible to establish a firm foot holding. Such people will employ every mean method to subdue the original settlers, legally if possible, illegally if necessary. History is the witness— there are always black sheep among the natives who are willing to betray the interests of their brethren for corrupt considerations. When the so-called moral and principled Americans came to this new land, they found the conditions favorable for them. â€Å"By exploiting the discordances between Spanish and American codes of law, Anglo speculators, often assisted by native New Mexican ricos and politicos, managed to buy up many tens of thousands of acres of valuable land grants for very little money.†(deBuys, p, 171) The civilized man needs to know that he can become master of his environment temporarily and then get ready to face the disastrous consequences. But the aggressors succeeded in stripping most of the Territory’s Hispanic villagers of their patrimony and their main source of wealth. Land disputes led to bitterness, rivalry and troubles in New Mexico even now. When people abuse land, whether it is in the backward Mexico hill range, or the forward America, the results are the same—inviting disaster for the life of humanity and the livestock as a whole. Nature does not condone its exploitation. â€Å"Through the late 1800s similar die-offs of livestock, caused always by a combination of overstocking, range deterioration, and bad weather, became common throughout the West. And in parallel fashion, westerners rapidly cut down their mountain forests in order to build towns, prop mine tunnels, and lay thousands of miles of railroad track.†(deBuys, p, 235) The modern man is not willing to experience himself as part of nature but as competitive outside force, destined to dominate it and conquer.   He does not realize that if he wins the battle against the nature he will soon find himself on the losing side. Look what happened in USA, a country that boasts of modern civilization. In the Civil War years, appalling conditions prevailed in California. Cattle and sheep perished in thousands, when nothing was left after overgrazing the rangelands and the perennial grasses was totally destroyed. Arizona, Wyoming, Montana and other cattle-growing regions did not learn lessons from the events in California. Man, whether savage or civilized, is a child of nature and this fact should be understood and accepted before it is too late, when the nature begins to react. The end of the natural resources is not the end of the story. With the deterioration of environment, the civilization declines. The wise saying goes, â€Å"civilized man has marched across the face of the earth and left a desert in his footprints.† Americans, Anglo speculators, assisted by the local rich class, destroyed the natural resources in Mexico. Usable timber was burnt, forested valleys and hillsides were systematically destroyed.   They killed most of the wide life. And finally the exploitation of the area reached the non-sustainable level and elk, bighorn sheep, grizzly bear, ptarmigan and pine marten were totally extinct. The protective topsoil was eroded. The resultant silt reached reservoirs, streams, irrigation canals, and harbors. They followed the road to ruin and it resulted in deep fissures within the conquering society and the natives. Historical records mainly contain accounts of battles, exploits of the kings and queens, their grandeur and wealth etc. They should have studied the historical importance of geography! The land use was an important factor on which destinies of civilizations and empires were largely determined. The existing competition among the various sections of the society for employment is another addition to the historical list of problems. The differences in the Anglo and Hispanic cultures on the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico have not been ironed out totally up to his day. The three principle cultures, Anglo, Hispanic and Native American continue to be at loggerheads on many issues related to their interests. At the same time there is awareness among these groups about the advantage of living in unity amongst the cultural diversity. One of their common causes is ecology. Restoring the balance in the natural resources is everybody’s concern for which a solid framework is worked out. When you take care of the mountains, they will take care of all races of humanity in more than one way, irrespective of their historical backgrounds and the present conflicts. With such a restoration process in swing, the past wounds of the natives will heal to some extent and they stand vindicated as for their custom and traditions of accepting nature in utter reverence. Any boastful materialistic achievements of the 2000s should not prevent the native people of northern New Mexico to fight to respect and hold on to their history, land and cultural way of life. Conclusion: The wise saying goes—every action has the reaction and the intensity of the reaction is in proportion to the intensity of the action. The spiritualist and the scientist, both agree on this issue. Whenever the human being tried to define nature, it has co-operated, as for his investigative genius. Whenever he tried to defy nature, is has invariably awarded him with appropriate punishment. Economic ambitions are good servants, but they are bad masters; the man will destroy the natural flora and fauna at his own peril! The environmentalists need to go through the history of the Life and Hard Times of a New Mexican Mountain Range for a while.   The examination of the historical facts will highlight the increasing exploitative behavior of successive waves of settlers that resulted in disastrous consequences. Having done the worst, it is now time to find solutions to the region’s environmental problems. References: deBuys, William: Book: Enchantment and Exploitation: The Life and Hard Times of a New Mexico Mountain Range Paperback: 416 pages Publisher: University of New Mexico Press; 1 edition (September 1, 1985) Language: English ISBN-10: 0826308201 ISBN-13: 978-0826308207

Mans Best Friend :: Literary Analysis, Pam Houston

Man’s Best Friend The character in â€Å"A Blizzard under Blue Sky,† by author Pam Houston is clinically depressed, and desires to go winter camping it hopes to gain some relief from her daily stresses. The character views nature as something that is good for a person, and is somewhat rejuvenating. â€Å" One of the things I love most about the natural world is the way it gives you what’s good for you even if you don’t know it at the time†(284). The character in â€Å"To Build a Fire† by author Jack London, is somewhat numb as far as emotions are concerned. â€Å"Fifty degrees below zero meant eighty-odd degrees of frost. Such fact impressed him as being cold and uncomfortable, and that was all† (295). His only hope and desire, is to get back to camp, where the â€Å"boys† are. The character in â€Å"A Blizzard under Blue Sky† decides to go camping and takes Jackson and Hailey with her, her two best friends. Jackson is an oversized male dog and Hailey is a female. The character proudly goes into detail about each of her dog’s personalities. She speaks of her dogs as companions, and she converses with them. â€Å"It’s fabulous here†, I told the dogs. â€Å"But so far it’s not working† (285). â€Å"Come on Mom†, Jackson said. â€Å"Ski harder, go faster, climb higher† (285). The character also shares her sleeping bag with her dog Haley, so that she can stay warm too. On the other hand, the character in â€Å"To Build a Fire† has a dog as well; it is a large native husky. The character is this story does not pay as much attention to his dog. â€Å"The dog dropped in again at his heels, with a tail drooping discouragement, as the man swung along the creek bed† (296). The character also sends his dog in ahead of him, when he senses danger. â€Å"The dog did Nevitt 2 not want to go† (297). In addition, he tries to kill the dog near the end in hopes keep warm. â€Å"He would kill the dog and bury his hands in the warm body until the numbness went out of them† (302). Both characters do have some similarities however, because both characters are warned, about the extremely cold weather conditions. The character in â€Å"To Build a Fire† is warned by a man in Sulphur Creek. â€Å"That man from Sulphur Creek had spoken the truth when telling how cold it sometimes got in the country.

Origins of Psychology Essay

This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 1900’s and paved the way for modern psychology in the early 1900’s. This theory deals with the deep, inner and mysterious core of the human psyche, in search of understanding the psychology of the human being. It is also closely connected with evolutionary perspectives on personality. Behaviorist : The primary focus of the behavioral perspective is on behavior and the influence of the external environment in shaping of the individual’s behavior. Teaching, therefore, refers to the environmental conditions that are arranged and presented to students. Some of the key behaviorist theorists in the field of psychology are viz. , John Watson, B. F. Skinner, and E. L. Thorndike. Teachers who draw from behaviorist theory tend towards active learning (or â€Å"learning by doing†). The teacher determines all of the skills needed to achieve the desired behavior and students learn them in a step-by-step manner. Humanist : The focus of the humanistic perspective is on the self, which translates into â€Å"YOU†, and â€Å"your† perception of â€Å"your† experiences. This veiw argues that you are free to choose your own behavior, rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Issues dealing with self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and needs are paramount. The major focus is to facilitate personal development. Two major theorists associated with this view are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Cognitive : The school of psychology that examines internal mental processes, such as creativity, perception, thinking, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how a person understands, diagnoses, and solves a problem, concerning themselves with the mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response (Garvey,1999) Neuro-scientific / Bio-psychological : The neuro-scientific framework seeks to relate behavior and mind to the brain. The important overall point of a neuro-scientific perspective is that analyses of normal or abnormal function need to be informed by an understanding of the brain structures and processes that implement the function. Psychiatrists need to monitor emerging work that highlights the need for both a neuro-scientific and medical perspective in the management of complex disorders. Evolutionary : Evolutionary psychology is the science that seeks to explain through universal mechanisms of behavior why humans act the way they do. Evolutionary psychology seeks to reconstruct problems that our ancestors faced in their primitive environments, and the problem-solving mechanisms they created to meet those particular challenges. From these reconstructed problem-solving adaptations, the science then attempts to establish the common roots of our ancestral behavior, and how those common behavioral roots are manifested today in the widely scattered cultures of the planet. The goal is to understand human behavior that is universally aimed at the passing of one’s genes into the next generation. Socio-cultural : The social-cultural perspective concentrates on the culture of a group of individuals or society as a whole rather than the individual. To understand why people tend to show certain behavior traits, mental health clinicians look at what affects the community as a group of individuals might have on their own thought processes. Some of the questions pondered are if a person behaves a certain way to be accepted or commits an act because it is accepted amongst their society.